TYPES OF BILINGUALISM

Bilingualism is generally described as having proficiency in at least some
aspects of two languages (Hamayan and Damico, 2005). Although generally
referring to two languages, some ELLs are multilingual having proficiency
with three or more languages. Beyond this general definition, levels of
proficiency for each of the language domains need to be considered to fully
appreciate the degree of bilingualism. For example, describing a person as
bilingual does not necessarily mean that person is biliterate, as they may only
read in their native language. All aspects of language need to be considered
before general application of the term and language proficiency assumptions
can be made. Other descriptors point to specific aspects of the development of
specific bilingual skills. In this section, two types of bilinguals: sequential and
simultaneous, will be described along with major types of bilingualism:
balanced/nonbalanced and additive/subtractive.

Balanced vs. Nonbalanced Bilingualism

Balanced
Equal levels of proficiency attained in more than one language
Equal proficiency across domains: listening, speaking, reading, writing
Equal levels of comfort and ease with both languages
Equally able to function across multiple settings
Difficult to attain and attained by relatively few bilinguals

Nonbalanced
Higher level of proficiency in one language
Dominant language has higher level of proficiency across domains
More comfort in dominant language
Functions better in dominant language
More typical pattern for most bilinguals

Sequential vs. Simultaneous Bilingualism

Sequential
Learning L2 after L1 is well established. Some sources define a sequential
bilingual as exposure to L2 after age three. Some sources refer to this as
successive or consecutive bilingualism.

Simultaneous
Exposure and acquisition of two (or more) languages at the same time and
generally, before the age of three.

Additive vs. Subtractive Bilingualism

Additive
L1 is secure, valued, maintained and reinforced by the community. Retention
of strong L1 foundation demonstrates positive second language learning
effects as it serves as a scaffold for L2. The learner is bilingual and bicultural.

Subtractive
L1 is less valued, and is not reinforced within the community. Language skills
erode and development of L1 is arrested as L2 is introduced and becomes the
dominant language. Cultural bonds are lost over time with the community.

There are other specific descriptors that point to the bilingual home
environment. For example, OPOL= one parent, one language; where the child
is exposed equally to two languages. It is important to obtain home language
use information, as often parents seek advice on language development within
the context of bilingualism.

With this enriched appreciation of the scope of second language acquisition
and bilingualism, we now take a look at the process of adjusting to another
culture.